ESTROGEN-DEPENDENT REGULATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE MITOCHONDRIA: MECHANISMS AND IMPLICATIONS
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Objective: Estrogen is a fundamental sex steroid hormone that not only governs female reproductive physiology but also exerts wide-ranging effects on multiple organ systems, including the cardiovascular, nervous, immune, and musculoskeletal systems. Methods: The fall of estrogen, characteristic of postmenopausal women, has been believed to be one of the strongest players for developing all these problems associated with aging, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorder, metabolic syndrome, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and frailty [4, 5]. Results: Estrogen exerts its biological actions through its receptors, called estrogen receptors (ERs). Estrogen-related receptors (ERRs: α, β, and γ), orphan nuclear receptors with high structural homology and overlapping transcriptional targets to ERs, have also been implicated in estrogen action [64], [65]. New emerging evidence emphasizes the pivotal involvement of both ERs and ERRs in skeletal muscle biology, such as the regulation of muscle mass, adaptation to exercise, and regeneration. Novelty: This review is highlighted on the the putative regulatory roles of ERs and ERRs exert on skeletal muscle physiology, with special attention in mediating mitochondrial function and metabolic homeostasis.
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